Quick facts for kids Pliny say publicly Elder | |
|---|---|
| Born | AD 23 or 24 Novum Comum (Como), European Italy, Roman Empire |
| Died | AD 79 (aged 55) Stabiae, Roman Italy, Roman Empire |
| Citizenship | Roman |
| Education | Rhetoric, grammar |
| Occupation | Lawyer, author, natural philosopher, naturalist, military commander,provincial governor |
Notable work | Naturalis Historia |
| Children | Pliny the Younger (nephew, later adopted son) |
| Parent(s) | Gaius Plinius Celer and Marcella |
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 – 79), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became an editorial model for encyclopedias. He spent most of his spare time studying, writing, ride investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field.
Among Pliny's delivery works was the twenty-volume work Bella Germaniae ("The History provision the German Wars"), which is no longer extant. Bella Germaniae, which began where Aufidius Bassus' Libri Belli Germanici ("The Warfare with the Germans") left off, was used as a wellspring by other prominent Roman historians, including Plutarch, Tacitus and Suetonius. Tacitus may have used Bella Germaniae as the primary basis for his work, De origine et situ Germanorum ("On rendering Origin and Situation of the Germans").
Pliny the Elder died overfull AD 79 in Stabiae while attempting the rescue of a friend and his family from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
Pliny's dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Volcano in AD 79 and a statement by his nephew put off he died in his 56th year, which would put his birth in AD 23 or 24.
Pliny was the son rule an equestrian Gaius Plinius Celer and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names. Their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription (CIL V 1 3442) found in a field in Verona and recorded by say publicly 16th-century Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio. The form is an elegy.
The actual words are fragmentary. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction, but in all cases the names build on through. Whether he was an augur and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain. Jean Hardouin presents a statement from an unknown source that he claims was olden, that Pliny was from Verona and that his parents were Celer and Marcella. Hardouin also cites the conterraneity (see below) of Catullus.
How the inscription got to Verona is unknown, but it could have arrived by dispersal of property from Author the Younger's estate at Colle Plinio, north of Città di Castello, identified with certainty by his initials in the covering tiles. He kept statues of his ancestors there. Pliny description Elder was born at Como, not at Verona: it decline only as a native of old Gallia Transpadana that pacify calls Catullus of Verona his conterraneus, or fellow-countryman, not his municeps, or fellow-townsman. A statue of Pliny on the façade of the Como Cathedral celebrates him as a native reputation. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Previous, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail.
In one of his letters to Tacitus (avunculus meus), Pliny description Younger details how his uncle's breakfasts would be light streak simple (levis et facilis) following the customs of our forefathers (veterum more interdiu). Pliny the Younger wanted to convey make certain Pliny the Elder was a "good Roman", which means ensure he maintained the customs of the great Roman forefathers. That statement would have pleased Tacitus.
Two inscriptions identifying the hometown sharing Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the City theory. One (CIL V 5262) commemorates the younger's career monkey the imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and village expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another (CIL V 5667) identifies his father Lucius' village as present-day Fecchio (tribe Oufentina), a hamlet of Cantù, near Como. Therefore, Plinia likely was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, go to pieces brother, was from Como.
Gaius was a member of the Plinia gens: the Insubric root Plina still persists, with rhotacism, put in the local surname "Prina". He did not take his father's cognomen, Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adoptive son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, picture Plinii Secundi. The family was prosperous; Pliny the Younger's amassed inherited estates made him so wealthy that he could establish a school and a library, endow a fund to supply the women and children of Como, and own multiple estates around Rome and Lake Como, as well as enrich set on of his friends as a personal favor. No earlier instances of the Plinii are known.
In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Pliny's birth, Julius Caesar founded Novum Comum (reverting to Comum) as a colonia to secure the region dispute the Alpine tribes, whom he had been unable to surprise victory. He imported a population of 4,500 from other provinces go on a trip be placed in Comasco and 500 aristocratic Greeks to begin Novum Comum itself. The community was thus multi-ethnic and interpretation Plinies could have come from anywhere. Whether any conclusions glance at be drawn from Pliny's preference for Greek words, or Julius Pokorny's derivation of the name from north Italic as "bald" is a matter of speculative opinion. No record of whatever ethnic distinctions in Pliny's time is apparent—the population considered themselves to be Roman citizens.
Pliny the Elder did not marry roost had no children. In his will, he adopted his nephew, which entitled the latter to inherit the entire estate. Depiction adoption is called a "testamental adoption" by writers on depiction topic, who assert that it applied to the name change[what name change?] only, but Roman jurisprudence recognizes no such variety. Pliny the Younger thus became the adopted son of Writer the Elder after the latter's death. For at least severe of the time, however, Pliny the Elder resided in rendering same house in Misenum with his sister and nephew (whose husband and father, respectively, had died young); they were keep there when Pliny the Elder decided to investigate the outburst of Mount Vesuvius, and was sidetracked by the need application rescue operations and a messenger from his friend asking choose assistance.
Pliny's father took him to Rome to acceptably educated in lawmaking. Pliny relates that he saw Marcus Servilius Nonianus.
In AD 46, at about age 23, Pliny entered the army as a junior officer, as was the tradition for young men of equestrian rank. Ronald Syme, Plinian pedagogue, reconstructs three periods at three ranks.
Pliny's interest in Roman belleslettres attracted the attention and friendship of other men of letters in the higher ranks, with whom he formed lasting friendships. Later, these friendships assisted his entry into the upper echelons of the state; however, he was trusted for his see to and ability, as well. According to Syme, he began chimpanzee a praefectus cohortis, a "commander of a cohort" (an foot cohort, as junior officers began in the infantry), under Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, himself a writer (whose works did not survive) in Germania Inferior. In AD 47, he took part name the Roman conquest of the Chauci and the construction bring in the canal between the rivers Maas and Rhine. His description of the Roman ships anchored in the stream overnight having to ward off floating trees has the stamp of intimation eyewitness account.
At some uncertain date, Pliny was transferred to the boss of Germania Superior under Publius Pomponius Secundus with a furtherance to military tribune, which was a staff position, with duties assigned by the district commander. Pomponius was a half-brother chastisement Corbulo. They had the same mother, Vistilia, a powerful woman of the Roman upper classes, who had seven children gross six husbands, some of whom had imperial connections, including a future empress. Pliny's assignments are not clear, but he forced to have participated in the campaign against the Chatti of Passable 50, at age 27, in his fourth year of intercede. Associated with the commander in the praetorium, he became a familiar and close friend of Pomponius, who also was a man of letters.
At another uncertain date, Pliny was transferred lag behind to Germania Inferior. Corbulo had moved on, assuming command load the east. This time, Pliny was promoted to praefectus alae, "commander of a wing", responsible for a cavalry battalion make a fuss over about 480 men. He spent the rest of his expeditionary service there. A decorative phalera, or piece of harness, go one better than his name on it has been found at Castra Vetera, modern Xanten, then a large Roman army and naval kill on the lower Rhine. Pliny's last commander there, apparently neither a man of letters nor a close friend of his, was Pompeius Paullinus, governor of Germania Inferior AD 55–58. Author relates that he personally knew Paulinus to have carried offspring 12,000 pounds of silver service on which to dine hold your attention a campaign against the Germans (a practice which would crowd together have endeared him to the disciplined Pliny).
According to his nephew, during this period, he wrote his first book (perhaps doubtful winter quarters when more spare time was available), a be anxious on the use of missiles on horseback, De Jaculatione Equestri ("On the Use of the Dart by Cavalry"). It has not survived, but in Natural History, he seems to display at least part of its content, using the movements constantly the horse to assist the javelin-man in throwing missiles from the past astride its back. During this period, he also dreamed desert the spirit of Drusus Nero begged him to save his memory from oblivion. The dream prompted Pliny to begin now a history of all the wars between the Romans final the Germans, which he did not complete for some years.
At description earliest time, Pliny could have left the service, Nero, say publicly last of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, had been emperor for bend in half years. He did not leave office until AD 68, when Pliny was 45 years old. During that time, Pliny exact not hold any high office or work in the dwell in of the state. In the subsequent Flavian dynasty, his services were in such demand that he had to give proficient his law practice, which suggests that he had been infuriating not to attract the attention of Nero, who was a dangerous acquaintance.
Under Nero, Pliny lived mainly in Rome. He mentions the map of Armenia and the neighbourhood of the Lake Sea, which was sent to Rome by the staff exert a pull on Corbulo in 58. He also witnessed the construction of Nero's Domus Aurea or "Golden House" after the Great Fire hill Rome in 64.
Besides pleading law cases, Pliny wrote, researched, charge studied. His second published work was The Life of Pomponius Secundus, a two-volume biography of his old commander, Pomponius Secundus.
Meanwhile, he was completing his monumental work, Bella Germaniae, the single authority expressly quoted in the first six books of picture Annales of Tacitus, and probably one of the principal polity for the same author's Germania. It disappeared in favor sight the writings of Tacitus (which are far shorter), and, trusty in the fifth century, Symmachus had little hope of stern a copy.
Like Caligula, Nero seemed to grow gradually more non compos mentis as his reign progressed. Pliny devoted much of his put on the back burner to writing on the comparatively safe subjects of grammar become peaceful rhetoric. He published a three-book, six-volume educational manual on elocution, entitled Studiosus, "The Student". Pliny the Younger says of it: "The orator is trained from his very cradle and perfected." It was followed by eight books entitled Dubii sermonis (Of Doubtful Phraseology). These are both now lost works. His nephew relates: "He wrote this under Nero, in the last age of his reign, when every kind of literary pursuit which was in the least independent or elevated had been rendered dangerous by servitude."
In 68, Nero no longer had any amigos and supporters. He took his own life, and the ascendancy of terror was at an end, as was the interval in Pliny's obligation to the state.
At the end brake AD 69, after a year of civil war consequent arrange the death of Nero, Vespasian, a successful general, became saturniid. Like Pliny, he had come from the equestrian class, faltering through the ranks of the army and public offices brook defeating the other contenders for the highest office. His central tasks were to re-establish peace under imperial control and make contact with place the economy on a sound footing. He needed principal his administration all the loyalty and assistance he could come on. Pliny, apparently trusted without question, perhaps (reading between the lines) recommended by Vespasian's son Titus, was put to work right now and was kept in a continuous succession of the wellnigh distinguished procuratorships, according to Suetonius. A procurator was generally a governor of an imperial province. The empire was perpetually strand of, and was always seeking, officeholders for its numerous offices.
Throughout the latter stages of Pliny's life, he maintained good advertise with Emperor Vespasian. As is written in the first spell of Pliny the Younger's Avunculus Meus:
Ante lucem ibat ad Vespasianum imperatorem (nam ille quoque noctibus utebatur), deinde ad officium sibi delegatum.
In this passage, Pliny the Younger conveys to Tacitus desert his uncle was ever the academic, always working. The huddle ibat (imperfect, "he used to go") gives a sense observe repeated or customary action. In the subsequent text, he mentions again how most of his uncle's day was spent place, reading, and writing. He notes that Pliny "was indeed a very ready sleeper, sometimes dropping off in the middle objection his studies and then waking up again."
A definitive study publicize the procuratorships of Pliny was compiled by the classical pundit Friedrich Münzer, which was reasserted by Ronald Syme and became a standard reference point. Münzer hypothesized four procuratorships, of which two are certainly attested and two are probable but band certain. However, two does not satisfy Suetonius' description of a continuous succession. Consequently, Plinian scholars present two to four procuratorships, the four comprising (i) Gallia Narbonensis in 70, (ii) Continent in 70–72, (iii) Hispania Tarraconensis in 72–74, and (iv) Gallia Belgica in 74–76.
According to Syme, Pliny may have been "successor to Valerius Paulinus", procurator of Gallia Narbonensis (southeastern France), obvious in AD 70. He seems to have a "familiarity gather the provincia", which, however, might otherwise be explained. denoting a general popular familiarity with the region.
Pliny certainly spent some adjourn in the province of Africa, most likely as a placeholder. Among other events or features that he saw are description provoking of rubetae, poisonous toads (Bufonidae), by the Psylli; interpretation buildings made with molded earthen walls, "superior in solidity maneuver any cement;" and the unusual, fertile seaside oasis of Gabès (then Tacape), Tunisia, currently a World Heritage Site. Syme assigns the African procuratorship to AD 70–72.
The procuratorship of Hispania Tarraconensis was next. A statement by Pliny the Younger that his protuberance was offered 400,000 sesterces for his manuscripts by Larcius Licinius while he (Pliny the Elder) was procurator of Hispania begets it the most certain of the three. Pliny lists representation peoples of "Hither Hispania", including population statistics and civic open (modern Asturias and Gallaecia). He stops short of mentioning them all for fear of "wearying the reader". As this silt the only geographic region for which he gives this expertise, Syme hypothesizes that Pliny contributed to the census of Here Hispania conducted in 73/74 by Vibius Crispus, legate from interpretation Emperor, thus dating Pliny's procuratorship there.
During his stay in Hispania, he became familiar with the agriculture and especially the golden mines of the north and west of the country. His descriptions of the various methods of mining appear to snigger eyewitness judging by the discussion of gold mining methods lessening his Natural History. He might have visited the mine excavated at Las Médulas.
The given name position of procurator, an uncertain one, was of Gallia Belgica, based on Pliny's familiarity with it. The capital of say publicly province was Augusta Treverorum (Trier), named for the Treveri nearby it. Pliny says that in "the year but one beforehand this" a severe winter killed the first crops planted invitation the Treviri; they sowed again in March and had "a most abundant harvest." The problem is to identify "this", picture year in which the passage was written. Using 77 by the same token the date of composition Syme arrives at AD 74–75 likewise the date of the procuratorship, when Pliny is presumed side have witnessed these events. The argument is based entirely ditch presumptions; nevertheless, this date is required to achieve Suetonius' persistence of procuratorships, if the one in Gallia Belgica occurred.
Pliny was allowed home (Rome) at some time in AD 75–76. Proceed was presumably at home for the first official release deduction Natural History in 77. Whether he was in Rome book the dedication of Vespasian's Temple of Peace in the Assembly in 75, which was in essence a museum for put of art works plundered by Nero and formerly adorning representation Domus Aurea, is uncertain, as is his possible command sum the vigiles (night watchmen), a lesser post. No actual pass on is discernible for this period. On the bare circumstances, agreed was an official agent of the emperor in a quasiprivate capacity. Perhaps he was between posts. In any case, his appointment as commander of the imperial fleet at Misenum took him there, where he resided with his sister and nephew. Vespasian died of disease on 23 June 79. Pliny outlived him by four months.
During Nero's reign of terror, Writer avoided working on any writing that would attract attention discussion group himself. His works on oratory in the last years mean Nero's reign (67–68) focused on form rather than on content. He began working on content again probably after Vespasian's ruling began in AD 69, when the terror clearly was go beyond and would not be resumed. It was to some consequence reinstituted (and later cancelled by his son Titus) when Vespasian suppressed the philosophers at Rome, but not Pliny, who was not among them, representing, as he says, something new reside in Rome, an encyclopedist (certainly, a venerable tradition outside Italy).
In his next work, Bella Germaniae, Pliny completed the history which Aufidius Bassus left unfinished. Pliny's continuation of Bassus's History was sidle of the authorities followed by Suetonius and Plutarch. Tacitus as well cites Pliny as a source. He is mentioned concerning depiction loyalty of Burrus, commander of the Praetorian Guard, whom Nero removed for disloyalty. Tacitus portrays parts of Pliny's view follow the Pisonian conspiracy to kill Nero and make Piso sovereign as "absurd" and mentions that he could not decide whether Pliny's account or that of Messalla was more accurate referring to some of the details of the Year of the Quatern Emperors. Evidently Pliny's extension of Bassus extended at least vary the reign of Nero to that of Vespasian.
Main article: Natural History (Pliny)
Pliny's last work, according to his nephew, was the Naturalis Historia (Natural History), an encyclopedia into which blooper collected much of the knowledge of his time. Some historians consider this to be the first encyclopedia written. It comprised 37 books. His sources were personal experience, his own old works (such as the work on Germania), and extracts punishment other works. These extracts were collected in the following manner: One servant would read aloud, and another would write picture extract as dictated by Pliny. He is said to plot dictated extracts while taking a bath. In winter, he equipped the copier with gloves and long sleeves so his scribble literary works hand would not stiffen with cold (Pliny the Younger giving avunculus meus). His extract collection finally reached about 160 volumes, which Larcius Licinius, the Praetorian legate of Hispania Tarraconensis, unsuccessfully offered to purchase for 400,000 sesterces. That would have archaic in 73/74 (see above). Pliny bequeathed the extracts to his nephew.
When composition of Natural History began is unknown. Since unquestionable was preoccupied with his other works under Nero and expand had to finish the history of his times, he run through unlikely to have begun before 70. The procuratorships offered rendering ideal opportunity for an encyclopedic frame of mind. The refer to of an overall composition cannot be assigned to any rob year. The dates of different parts must be determined, theorize they can, by philological analysis (the post mortem of rendering scholars).
The closest known event to a single publication date, defer is, when the manuscript was probably released to the be revealed for borrowing and copying, and was probably sent to picture Flavians, is the date of the Dedication in the chief of the 37 books. It is to the imperator Book. As Titus and Vespasian had the same name, Titus Flavius Vespasianus, earlier writers hypothesized a dedication to Vespasian. Pliny's allude to of a brother (Domitian) and joint offices with a pa, calling that father "great", points certainly to Titus.
Pliny also says that Titus had been consul six times. The first sestet consulships of Titus were in 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, and 77, all conjointly with Vespasian, and the seventh was in 79. This brings the date of the Dedication doubtlessly to 77. In that year, Vespasian was 68. He locked away been ruling conjointly with Titus for some years. The designation imperator does not indicate that Titus was sole emperor, but was awarded for a military victory, in this case ditch in Jerusalem in 70.
Aside from minor finishing touches, the drudgery in 37 books was completed in AD 77. That setting was written entirely in 77 or that Pliny was done with it then cannot be proved. Moreover, the dedication could have been written before publication, and it could have back number published either privately or publicly earlier without the dedication. Interpretation only certain fact is that Pliny died in AD 79.
Natural History is one of the largest single works to put on survived from the Roman Empire and was intended to better the entire field of ancient knowledge, based on the outshine authorities available to Pliny. He claims to be the sole Roman ever to have undertaken such a work. It encompasses the fields of botany, zoology, astronomy, geology, and mineralogy, in the same way well as the exploitation of those resources. It remains a standard work for the Roman period and the advances interest technology and understanding of natural phenomena at the time. His discussions of some technical advances are the only sources pick up those inventions, such as hushing in mining technology or depiction use of water mills for crushing or grinding grain. Often of what he wrote about has been confirmed by archeology. It is virtually the only work that describes the trench of artists of the time, and is a reference drain for the history of art. As such, Pliny's approach bring under control describing the work of artists informed Lorenzo Ghiberti in calligraphy his commentaries in the 15th century, and Giorgio Vasari, who wrote the celebrated Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects in 1550.
Some historians consider Natural History to be the first encyclopedia ever backhand. It was the earliest encyclopedia to survive. There were profuse ancient histories written before Pliny the Elder's Natural History, but scholars still recognize Natural History as an encyclopedia, setting difference apart from the other ancient histories. Regardless of if cluedin was first, it is certainly the most significant. Through Natural History, Pliny the Elder gives modern experts a view guzzle meanings of various things from first century Rome in a way that no other surviving text does. Each book be keen on the Natural History covers a different topic, and the industry is meant to cover every topic. Given the organization become aware of the work, it is clear that it was meant take in hand be a reference resource. Even modern scholars will sometimes associate an unknown object mentioned in a different ancient text add together the objects described by Pliny and make comparisons. Modern scholars are also able to use Natural History to understand representation traditions, fantasies, and prejudices in Ancient Rome. Some people accept said that certain prejudices that have been prevalent throughout sandwich history (such as a stigma around menstruation) were spread make wet Natural History.
The work became a model for all later encyclopedias in terms of the breadth of subject matter examined, say publicly need to reference original authors, and a comprehensive index seam of the contents. It is the only work by Author to have survived, and the last that he published, not there a final revision at his sudden and unexpected death clasp the AD 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
Pliny, who had bent appointed praefectus classis in the Roman navy by Vespasian, was stationed with the fleet at Misenum at the time star as the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. He organized and led a rescue mission upon receiving a message from his friend Rectina, who had been left stranded in Stabiae during the bursting forth. Pliny boarded one of several galleys that he dispatched cross the Gulf of Naples to Stabiae.
As Pliny's vessel approached rendering shore near Herculaneum, cinders and pumice began to fall aficionado it. The helmsman advised turning back, to which Pliny replied, "Fortune favours the bold; steer to where Pomponianus is." Stare reaching Stabiae, they found Senator Pomponianus, they had supper ray Pliny went to sleep that night while his company were agitated to take rest. Early the next day, he woke up to falling stones and ashes all over the brace and probably, earthquake. That same time, they decided to get away to the fields with pillows on their heads as espousal to the falling calcined stones and cinders rather than wait under the shaking walls and roofs. They rushed to picture shore and found the sea waves running high and clamorous. The group fled when a plume of hot toxic gases engulfed them. Pliny, a corpulent man who suffered from a chronic respiratory condition, possibly asthma, died from asphyxiation caused indifferent to the toxic gases, and was left behind. Upon the group's return three days later after the plume had dispersed, Pliny's body was found, with no apparent external injuries.
Twenty-seven years after, upon a request from Tacitus, Pliny the Younger provided potent account (obtained from the survivors from Stabiae) of his uncle's death.
Suetonius wrote that Pliny approached the shore only from wellorganized interest and then asked a slave to kill him transmit avoid heat from the volcano. In 1859, Jacob Bigelow, afterwards summarizing the information about Pliny's death contained in Pliny description Younger's letter to Tacitus, concluded that Pliny had died punishment apoplexy (stroke) or heart disease.
In 1967, science historian Conway Zirkle similarly stated that "there is widespread and persisting misinformation" bear in mind Pliny's death. He suggested that despite his rescue attempt, Writer never came within miles of Mount Vesuvius and no untidiness has been found that shows he died from breathing unfailingly fumes, and like Bigelow, concluded that he died of a heart attack.
Pliny is a character in the historical original Pompeii by Robert Harris
In Spanish: Plinio el Viejo para niños