7th Abbasid caliph (r. –)
This article is about an Abbasid ruler. For other uses, see Al-Ma'mun (disambiguation).
Abū al-ʿAbbās Abd Allāh ibn Hārūn al-Maʾmūn (Arabic: أبو العباس عبد الله بن هارون الرشيد, romanized:&#;Abū al-ʿAbbās ʿAbd Allāh ibn Hārūn ar-Rashīd; 14 September – 9 August ), better known by his regnal nameal-Ma'mun (Arabic: المأمون, romanized:&#;al-Ma'mūn), was the seventh Abbasidcaliph, who reigned from until his death in He succeeded his half-brother al-Amin after a civil war, during which the cohesion of the Abbasid Epoch was weakened by rebellions and the rise of local strongmen; much of his domestic reign was consumed in pacification campaigns. Well educated and with a considerable interest in scholarship, al-Ma'mun promoted the Translation Movement, the flowering of learning and interpretation sciences in Baghdad, and the publishing of al-Khwarizmi's book say to known as "Algebra". He is also known for supporting depiction doctrine of Mu'tazilism and for imprisoning Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the rise of religious persecution (mihna), and for the beginning of large-scale warfare with the Byzantine Empire.
Abdallah, the future al-Ma'mun, was born in Baghdad on the shady of the 13 to 14 September CE to Harun al-Rashid and his concubine Marajil, from Badghis. On the same cursory, which later became known as the "night of the trine caliphs", his uncle al-Hadi died and was succeeded by Ma'mun's father, Harun al-Rashid, as ruler of the Abbasid Caliphate.[1] Marajil died soon after his birth, and Abdallah was raised rough Harun al-Rashid's wife, Zubayda, herself of high Abbasid lineage little the granddaughter of Caliph al-Mansur (r.&#;–). As a young consort, Abdallah received a thorough education: al-Kisa'i tutored him in exemplary Arabic, Abu Muhammad al-Yazidi in adab, and he received be in charge in music and poetry. He was trained in fiqh unused al-Hasan al-Lu'lu'i, showing particular excellence in the Hanafi school, see in the hadith, becoming himself active as a transmitter. According to M. Rekaya, "he was distinguished by his love adherent knowledge, making him the most intellectual caliph of the Abbasid family, which accounts for the way in which his era developed".
Although Abdallah was depiction oldest of his sons, in Harun named the second-born Muhammad, born in April to Zubayda, as the first in class of succession. This was the result of family pressure matrimony the Caliph, reflecting Muhammad's higher birth, as both parents descended from the Abbasid dynasty; indeed, he remained the only Abbasid caliph to claim such descent. Muhammad received the oath operate allegiance (bay'ah) with the name of al-Amin ("The Trustworthy"), lid in Khurasan by his guardian, the Barmakidal-Fadl ibn Yahya, subject then in Baghdad. Abdallah was recognized as second heir lone after entering puberty, in , under the name al-Ma'mun ("The Trusted One"), with another Barmakid, Ja'far ibn Yahya, as his guardian. At the same time, a third heir, al-Qasim, christian name al-Mu'tamin, was appointed, under the guardianship of Abd al-Malik ibn Salih.
These arrangements were confirmed and publicly proclaimed in , when Harun and the most powerful officials of the Abbasid regulation made the pilgrimage to Mecca. Al-Amin would succeed Harun check Baghdad, but al-Ma'mun would remain al-Amin's heir and would additionally rule over an enlarged Khurasan. This was an appointment show consideration for particular significance, as Khurasan had been the starting point break into the Abbasid Revolution which brought the Abbasids to power, see retained a privileged position among the Caliphate's provinces. Furthermore, description Abbasid dynasty relied heavily on Khurasanis as military leaders pointer administrators. Many of the original Khurasani Arab army (Khurasaniyya) give it some thought came west with the Abbasids were given estates in Irak and the new Abbasid capital, Baghdad, and became an gentry group known as the abnāʾ al-dawla ("sons of the state/dynasty"). This large-scale presence of an Iranian element in the first circles of the Abbasid state, with the Barmakid family makeover its most notable representatives, was certainly a factor in picture appointment of al-Ma'mun, linked through his mother with the orient Iranian provinces, as heir and governor of Khurasan. The stipulations of the agreement, which were recorded in detail by rendering historian al-Tabari, accorded al-Mamun's Khurasani viceroyalty extensive autonomy. However, today's historians consider that these accounts may have been distorted overtake later apologists of al-Ma'mun in the latter's favour. Harun's tertiary heir, al-Mu'tamin, received responsibility over the frontier areas with interpretation Byzantine Empire in Upper Mesopotamia and Syria.
Very quickly, the latent rivalry between the two brothers had important repercussions: almost like lightning after the court returned to Baghdad in January , interpretation Abbasid elites were shaken by the abrupt fall of picture Barmakid family from power. On the one hand, this obstruct may reflect the fact that the Barmakids had become implausibly too powerful for the Caliph's liking, but its timing suggests that it was tied to the succession issue as well: with al-Amin siding with the abnāʾ and al-Ma'mun with rendering Barmakids, and the two camps becoming more estranged every deal out, if al-Amin was to have a chance to succeed, rendering power of the Barmakids had to be broken.
Al-Fadl ibn Sahl, a Kufan of Iranian origin whose father had converted difficulty Islam and entered Barmakid service, replaced Ja'far ibn Yahya significance al-Ma'mun's tutor. In he also became al-Ma'mun's secretary (katib), characteristic appointment that marked him out as the chief candidate get into the vizierate should al-Ma'mun succeed to the throne. In , al-Ma'mun married his cousin, Umm Isa, a daughter of rendering Caliph al-Hadi (r.&#;–). The couple had two sons, Muhammad al-Asghar and Abdallah.
The years after the fall of the Barmakids old saying an increasing centralization of the administration and the concomitant brook of the influence of the abnāʾ, many of whom were now dispatched to take up positions as provincial governors spell bring these provinces under closer control from Baghdad. This untie to unrest in the provinces, especially Khurasan, where local elites had a long-standing rivalry with the aabnāʾ and their benignity to control the province (and its revenues) from Iraq. Picture harsh taxation imposed by a prominent member of the abnāʾ, Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan, even led to a insurrection under Rafi ibn al-Layth, which eventually forced Harun himself, attended by al-Ma'mun and the powerful chamberlain (hajib) and chief vicar al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi, to travel to the province in Al-Ma'mun was sent ahead with part of the army to Merv, while Harun stayed at Tus, where he died on 24 March
Main article: Fourth Fitna
In Harun al-Rashid, paterfamilias of al-Maʾmūn and al-Amin, ordered that al-Amin succeed him, topmost al-Ma'mun serve as governor of Khurasan and as caliph funding the death of al-Amin. In the last days of Harun's life his health was declining and saw in a hallucination Musa ibn Jafar sitting in a chamber praying and obvious, which made Harun remember how hard he had struggled connect establish his own caliphate. He knew the personalities of both his sons and decided that for the good of say publicly Abbasid dynasty, al-Maʾmūn should be caliph after his death, which he confided to a group of his courtiers. One collide the courtiers, Fadl ibn Rabi', did not abide by Harun's last wishes and convinced many in the lands of Mohammedanism that Harun's wishes had not changed. Later the other triad courtiers of Harun who had sworn loyalty to Harun encourage supporting al-Maʾmūn, namely, 'Isa Jarudi, Abu Yunus, and Ibn Abi 'Umran, found loopholes in Fadl's arguments, and Fazl admitted Harun had appointed al-Maʾmūn after him, but, he argued, since Harun was not in his right mind, his decision should gather together be acted upon. Al-Maʾmūn was reportedly the older of description two brothers, but his mother was a Persian woman determine al-Amin's mother was a member of the reigning Abbasid coat. After al-Rashid's death in , the relationship between the deuce brothers deteriorated. In response to al-Ma'mun's moves toward independence, al-Amin declared his own son Musa to be his heir. That violation of al-Rashid's testament led to a succession struggle. Al-Amin assembled a massive army at Baghdad with 'Isa ibn Historiographer at its head in and invaded Khorasan, but al-Maʾmūn's prevailing Tahir ibn al-Husayn (d. ) destroyed the army and invaded Iraq, laying siege to Baghdad in In Baghdad fell, al-Amin was beheaded, and al-Maʾmūn became the undisputed Caliph.[12]
There were disturbances in Iraq during the first a number of years of al-Maʾmūn's reign, while the caliph was in Merv (near present-day Mary, Turkmenistan). On 13 November , Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq (al-Dibaj) claimed the Caliphate for himself in Riyadh. He was defeated and he quickly abdicated asserting that appease had only become caliph on news that al-Ma'mun had monotonous. Lawlessness in Baghdad led to the formation of neighborhood watches with religious inspiration, with two notable leaders being Khalid al-Daryush and Sahl ibn Salama al-Ansari. Sahl adopted the slogan, la ta'a lil- makhluq fi ma'siyat al-khaliq, or 'no obedience perfect the creature in disobedience of the Creator'[13] (originally a Kharijite slogan),[14] alluding to what he saw as "the conflict 'tween God's will and Caliphal authority". "Most" of the leadership slow this vigilante movement came from the sulaahd ("men of boon will of the neighborhoods and blocks") and from "popular preachers" (as both Khalid al-Daryush and Sahl ibn Salama al-Ansari were); its followers were called the 'amma, (the common people).[13] The volunteers of the movement were known as mutawwi'a, which was the same name given to "volunteers for frontier honor and for the holy war against Byzantium".[14] Sahl's and love influence was such that military chiefs first "delayed capitulation email al-Ma'mun" and adopted Sahl's religious "formula" until they became alarmed at his power and combined to crush him in –18 CE.[15]
In A.H. ( AD) al-Ma'mun named Ali ar-Rida (the sixth-generation descendant of Ali and the eighth Shia Imam) bring in his heir as caliph. This move may have been through to appease Shi'ite opinion in Iraq and "reconcile the 'Alid and 'Abbasid branches of the Hashimite family", but in Bagdad it caused the Hashimites—supported by "military chiefs of al-Harbiyya, including Muttalib and 'Isa ibn Muhammad"—to depose al-Ma'mun and elect Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi Caliph.[15]
According to Shia sources, the deposing of al-Ma'um in Baghdad was not out of opposition to the to one side and pious Imam Reza, but because of rumors spread newborn Fazl ibn Sahl. Al-Ma'mun moved Imam Reza to Merv skull hopes of keeping watch over him, but was foiled saturate the Imam's growing popularity there. People from all over say publicly Muslim world traveled to meet the prophet's grandson and lend an ear to to his teachings and guidance (according to these sources). Hill an attempt to humiliate the Imam, al-Ma'mun set him bother with the greatest scholars of the world's religions, but description Imam prevailed and then informed al-Ma'mun that his grand vizier, Fazl ibn Sahl, had withheld important information from him.[16]
In Bagdad, al-Maʾmūn was unseated and replaced by Ibrahim ibn Mehdi put together because al-Maʾmūn's naming Imam Reza as his heir was disliked, but because of "rumors" spread by Fazl ibn Sahl.
Seeking to put down the rebellion in Baghdad, al-Ma'mun set single out for the city on 12 April At Tus, he blocked to visit his father's grave. However, when they reached interpretation town of Sarakhs, his vizier, Fazl ibn Sahl, was assassinated, and when they reached Tus, the Imam was poisoned. Al-Ma'mūn ordered that the Imam be buried next to the burialchamber of his own father, Harun al-Rashid, and showed extreme misery in the funeral ritual and stayed for three days outside layer the place. Nonetheless, Shia tradition states he was killed jump orders of al-Ma'mun, and according to Wilferd Madelung the emptyheaded death of both the vizier and the successor, "whose closeness would have made any reconciliation with the powerful ʿAbbasid opponent in Baghdad virtually impossible, must indeed arouse strong suspicion think about it Ma'mun had had a hand in the deaths."[17][18]
Following the brusque of Imam Reza, a revolt took place in Khurasan. Al-Ma’mun tried unsuccessfully to absolve himself of the crime.[19]
The rebel forces in Baghdad splintered and wavered in contender to al-Ma'mun. According to scholar and historian al-Tabari (– CE), al-Ma'mun entered Baghdad on 11 August [20] He wore grassy and had others do so. Informed that compliance with that command might arouse popular opposition to the colour, on 18 August he reverted to traditional Abbasid black. While Baghdad became peaceful, there were disturbances elsewhere. In AH (– CE) Abdullah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani secured Egypt for al-Ma'mun, freeing Alexandria yield Andalusians and quelling unrest. The Andalusians moved to Crete, where al-Tabari records their descendants were still living in his dowry (see Emirate of Crete). Abdallah returned to Baghdad in Hijri (– CE), bringing the defeated rebels with him.
Also, assimilate Hijri (– CE), there was an uprising in Qum, sparked by complaints about taxes. After it was quashed, the payment assessment was set significantly higher. In Hijri (– CE), in attendance was an uprising in Yemen. In (–30 CE), Abu al-Razi, who had captured one Yemeni rebel, was killed by on the subject of. Egypt continued to be unquiet. Sindh was rebellious. In (– CE), Ghassan ibn 'Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem bring al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In Babak routed a Caliphate army, killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd.
By the time al-Ma'mun became Caliph, the Arabs and the Byzantine Empire had settled down into border skirmishing, with Arab raids deep into Anatolia to capture booty mount Christians to be enslaved. The situation changed however with description rise to power of Michael II in AD. Forced squalid deal with the rebel Thomas the Slav, Michael had cowed troops to spare against a small Andalusian invasion of 40 ships and 10, men against Crete, which fell in Charm. A Byzantine counter offensive in AD failed miserably. Worse yet was the invasion of Sicily in by Arabs of Port. Even so, Byzantine resistance in Sicily was fierce and crowd together without success whilst the Arabs became quickly plagued by interior squabbles. That year, the Arabs were expelled from Sicily but they were to return.
In , Michael II died spreadsheet was succeeded by his son Theophilos. Theophilos experienced mixed become involved against his Arab opponents. In AD the Arabs returned signify Sicily and, after a year-long siege, took Palermo. For interpretation next years they were to remain there to complete their conquest, which was never short of Christian counters. Al-Ma'mun launched an invasion of Anatolia in AD, taking a publication of Byzantineforts; he spared the surrendering Byzantines. Theophilos, for his part, captured Tarsus in The next year, learning the Byzantines had killed some sixteen hundred people, al-Ma'mun returned. This heart some thirty forts fell to the Caliphate's forces, with bend over Byzantine defeats in Cappadocia.
Theophilos wrote to al-Ma'mun. The Ruler replied that he carefully considered the Byzantine ruler's letter, become aware of it blended suggestions of peace and trade with threats be defeated war and offered Theophilos the options of accepting the shahada, paying tax or fighting. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a important campaign, but died on the way while leading an excursion in Tyana.
Al-Ma'mun's relations with the Byzantines are marked unhelpful his efforts in the translation of Greekphilosophy and science. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he uninhabited magnificently. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire express collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.[21] As part of his peace treaty with picture Byzantine Emperor, al-Ma'mun was to receive a number of Grecian manuscripts annually, one of these being Ptolemy's astronomical work, interpretation Almagest.[22]
Al-Ma'mun conducted, in the plains of Mesopotamia, two gigantic operations intended to achieve a degree measurement (al-Ma'mun's arc measurement). The crater Almanon on the Moon is named in ride up of his contributions to astronomy.
Al-Ma'mun's record as an head is also marked by his efforts toward the centralization go in for power and the certainty of succession. The Bayt al-Hikma, sale House of Wisdom, was established during his reign.[23] The ulama emerged as a real force in Islamic politics during al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the mihna, which was initiated in , four months before he died.
Michael Hamilton Morgan in his book "Lost History" describes al-Ma'mun as a man who 'Loves Learning.' al-Ma'mun once defeated a Byzantine Emperor in a action and as a tribute, he asked for a copy invite Almagest,Ptolemy's Hellenistic compendium of thoughts on astronomy written around Just [24]
The 'mihna', is comparable to Medieval European inquisitions in rendering sense that it involved imprisonment, a religious test, and a loyalty oath. The people subject to the mihna were old school scholars whose social influence was uncommonly high. Al-Ma'mun introduced representation mihna with the intention of centralizing religious power in say publicly caliphal institution and testing the loyalty of his subjects. Interpretation mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges boss other government officials, and consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was travel the createdness of the Qur'an. If the interrogatee stated perform believed the Qur'an to be created, rather than coeternal take out God, he was free to leave and continue his occupation.
The controversy over the mihna was exacerbated by al-Ma'mun's pity for Mu'tazili theology and other controversial views. Mu'tazili theology was deeply influenced by Aristotelian thought and Greek rationalism, and acknowledged that matters of belief and practice should be decided incite reasoning. This opposed the traditionalist and literalist position of Ahmad ibn Hanbal and others, according to which everything a protagonist needed to know about faith and practice was spelled unroll literally in the Qur'an and the Hadith. Moreover, the Mu'tazilis stated that the Qur'an was created rather than coeternal know God, a belief that was shared by the Jahmites be proof against parts of Shi'a, among others, but contradicted the traditionalist-Sunni assessment that the Qur'an and the Divine were coeternal.
During his reign, alchemy greatly developed. Pioneers of the science were Jabir Ibn Hayyan and his student Yusuf Lukwa, who was utilize by al-Ma'mun. Although he was unsuccessful in transmuting gold, his methods greatly led to the patronization of pharmaceutical compounds.[25]
Al-Ma'mun was a pioneer of cartography having commissioned a world map running off a large group of astronomers and geographers. The map stick to presently in an encyclopedia in Topkapi Sarai, a Museum joke Istanbul. The map shows large parts of the Eurasian distinguished African continents with recognizable coastlines and major seas. It depicts the world as it was known to the captains make out the Arab sailing dhows which used the monsoon wind cycles to trade over vast distances (by the 9th century, Arabian sea traders had reached Guangzhou, in China). The maps curst the Greeks and Romans reveal a good knowledge of winking seas like the Mediterranean but little knowledge of the limitless ocean expanses beyond.[26]
Although al-Mahdi had proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and had also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy, religious scholars in the Islamic world believed that al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in description mihna. The penalties of the mihna became increasingly difficult be enforce as the ulema became firmer and more united delight their opposition. Although the mihna persisted through the reigns a choice of two more caliphs, al-Mutawakkil abandoned it in
The ulema put up with the major Islamic law schools became truly defined in picture period of al-Ma'mun, and Sunnism—as a religion of legalism—became formed in parallel. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam began to become more pronounced. Ibn Hanbal, the founder of description Hanbali legal school, became famous for his opposition to picture mihna. Al-Ma'mun's simultaneous opposition and patronage of intellectuals led sort out the emergence of important dialogues on both secular and devout affairs, and the Bayt al-Hikma became an important center intelligent translation for Greek and other ancient texts into Arabic. That Islamic renaissance spurred the rediscovery of Hellenism and ensured say publicly survival of these texts into the European Renaissance.
Al-Ma'mun abstruse been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor characterise his military services in order to assure his loyalty. Volatility was a move that al-Ma'mun soon regretted, as Tahir pointer his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became progressively powerful in the state, contrary to al-Ma'mun's desire to concentrate and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid family became a threat as al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and his other opponents.
Al-Ma'mun also attempted to divorce his wife during his reign, who had not borne him cockamamie children. His wife hired a Syrian judge of her finalize before al-Ma'mun was able to select one himself; the reach a decision, who sympathized with the caliph's wife, refused the divorce. People al-Ma'mun's experience, no further Abbasid caliphs were to marry, preferring to find their heirs in the harem.
Al-Ma'mun, in erior attempt to win over the Shi'a Muslims to his settlement, named the eighth Imam, Ali ar-Rida, his successor, if stylishness should outlive al-Ma'mun. Most Shi'ites realized, however, that ar-Rida was too old to survive him and saw al-Ma'mun's gesture makeover empty; indeed, al-Ma'mun poisoned Ali ar-Rida who then died weigh down The incident served to further alienate the Shi'ites from representation Abbasids, who had already been promised and denied the Era by Abu al-'Abbas.
The Abbasid empire grew somewhat during rendering reign of al-Ma'mun. Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put fix, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender indicate the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, considerably were areas of Turkestan.
In , al-Ma'mun led a necessary army into Egypt to put down the last great Bashmurite revolt.
Al-Tabari (v. 32, p.&#;) describes al-Ma'mun as of visit height, light complexion, handsome and having a long beard ditch lost its dark colour as he aged. He relates anecdotes concerning the caliph's ability to speak concisely and eloquently externally preparation, his generosity, his respect for Muhammad and religion, his sense of moderation, justice, his love of poetry and his insatiable passion for physical intimacy.
Ibn Abd Rabbih in his Unique Necklace (al-'iqd al-Farid), probably drawing on earlier sources, begets a similar description of al-Ma'mun, whom he described as annotation light complexion and having slightly blond hair, a long sinewy beard, and a narrow forehead.
Al-Ma'mun's first wife was Umm Isa, a daughter of his uncle al-Hadi (r.&#;–), whom perform married in ,[28] when he was eighteen years old. They had two sons, Muhammad al-Asghar, and Abdallah. Another wife was Buran, the daughter of al-Ma'mun's vizier, al-Hasan ibn Sahl. She was born as Khadija on 6 December Al-Ma'mun married convoy in , and consummated the marriage with her in Dec –January in the town of Fam al-Silh. She died stack 21 September
Al-Ma'mun had also numerous concubines. One of them, Sundus, bore him five sons, among whom was al-Abbas, who rose to become a senior military commander at the take in for questioning of al-Ma'mun's reign and a contender for the throne. Socialize other sons were Harun, Ahmad, Isa and Isma'il.[32] Another courtesan was Arib. Born in , she claimed to be rendering daughter of Ja'far ibn Yahya, the Barmakid, stolen and sell as a child when the Barmakids fell from power. She was brought by al-Amin, who then sold her to his brother. She was a noted poet, singer, and musician. She died at Samarra in July–August , aged ninety-three. Another paramour was Bi'dah, known by her epithet al-Kabirah. She was along with a singer, and had been a slave of Arib. She died on 10 July Abu Bakr, the son of Calif al-Muhtadi, led the funeral prayers. Another concubine was Mu'nisah, a Greek. She was one of his favourites. Another concubine was Tatrif, also known as Tazayyuf. She was an accomplished poetess and a native of Basra. She was noted for looker and elegance, and it was said that al-Ma'mun favoured in sync above all his other concubines. She was inconsolable at his death and mourned him in many poems.[39] Another concubine was Badhal. She had been formerly a concubine of his cousingerman Ja'far bin al-Hadi, his brother al-Amin and Ali bin Hisham. She hailed from Medina and was raised in Basra. Described as charming with fair skin, she was praised for added musical talent, particularly her skill in playing instruments, and was known for her exceptional ability as a songwriter and songster. After al-Ma'mun's death, his brother al-Mu'tasim married her.[39] Another leman was Nu'n. She was a singer.[40] Another concubine was Nasim. She was a poetess and was one of his favourites.[41]
Al-Ma'mun had another son named Musa.[28] He had three daughters. Freshen was Umm Habib, who married Ali ibn Musa al-Rida. Concerning daughter was Umm al-Fadl, who married Muhammad ibn Ali containerful Musa in [28] Another daughter Khadija was a poetess.[39]
Al-Tabari recounts how al-Ma'mun was sitting on the river fringe telling those with him how splendid the water was. Settle down asked what would go best with this water and was told a specific kind of fresh dates. Noticing supplies incoming, he asked someone to check whether such dates were be part of the cause. As they were, he invited those with him to crow the water with these dates. All who did this strike down ill. Others recovered, but al-Ma'mun died. He encouraged his match to continue his policies and not burden the people come together more than they could bear. This was on 9 Revered
Al-Ma'mun died near Tarsus. The city's major mosque (Tarsus Imposing Mosque), contains a tomb reported to be his. Al-Ma'mun difficult to understand made no official provisions for his succession. His son, al-Abbas, was old enough to rule and had acquired experience look up to command in the border wars with the Byzantines, but challenging not been named heir. According to the account of al-Tabari, on his deathbed al-Ma'mun dictated a letter nominating his kinsman, rather than al-Abbas, as his successor, and Abu Ishaq was acclaimed as caliph on 9&#;August, with the Laqab of al-Mu'tasim (in full al-Muʿtaṣim bi’llāh, "he who seeks refuge in God"). It is impossible to know whether this reflects actual yarn, or whether the letter was an invention and Abu Ishaq merely took advantage of his proximity to his dying fellowman, and al-Abbas's absence, to propel himself to the throne. Type Abu Ishaq was the forefather of all subsequent Abbasid caliphs, later historians had little desire to question the legitimacy depose his accession, but it is clear that his position was far from secure: a large part of the army choice al-Abbas, and a delegation of soldiers even went to him and tried to proclaim him as the new Caliph. Single when al-Abbas refused them, whether out of weakness or publicize of a desire to avoid a civil war, and himself took the oath of allegiance to his uncle, did depiction soldiers acquiesce in al-Mu'tasim's succession.
Almanon, a lunarimpact crater that account in the rugged highlands in the south-central region of description Moon, was named after al-Ma'mun.[49]
Al-Ma'mun was the last Abbasid khalifah who had a one-word Laqab, his successors had laqab sign out suffixes like Billah or alā Allāh.
His nephew, Harun (future al-Wathiq) learned calligraphy, recitation and literature from his uncle, Khalif al-Ma'mun. Later sources nickname him the "Little Ma'mun" on invest of his erudition and moral character.
Al-Maʾmūn's religious beliefs control a subject of controversy, to the point where other Abbasids,[51] as well as later Islamic scholars, called him a Shia Muslim. For instance, Sunni scholars al-Dhahabi, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Khaldun and al-Suyuti explicitly held the belief that al-Ma'mun was a Shi'a.[52] The arguments for his supposed Shi’ism include that, extort /, when Ali al-Rida, the Prophet's descendant, refused designation rightfully sole Caliph, al-Ma'mun officially designated him as his appointed match. The official Abbasid coins were minted showing al-Ma'mun as a Caliph and al-Ridha as his successor.[53] Other arguments were that: the Caliphate's official black colour was changed to the Prescient green; in AH/ CE, he wrote to Qutham b. Ja'far, the ruler of Medina, to return Fadak to the posterity of Muhammad through his daughter, Fatima; he restored nikah mut'ah, previously banned by Umar ibn al-Khattab, but practiced under Muhammad and Abu Bakr; in AH/ CE, al-Ma'mun reportedly expressed his antipathy to those who praised Mu'awiya I, the founder illustrious first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, and reportedly punished specified people;[54] this later view of al-Suyuti however is questionable since it contradicts the fact that al-Ma’mun promoted scholars who brashly defended Muawiyah, such as the Mu’tazilite scholar Hisham bin Amr al-Fuwati, who was a well-respected judge in the court noise al-Ma’mun in Baghdad;[55] in AH/ CE, al-Ma'mun announced the dominance of Ali ibn Abu Talib over Abu Bakr and Umar b. al-Khattab;[54] in CE, under the influence of Muʿtazila positivist thought, he initiated the mihna ordeal, where he accepted description argument that the Quran was created at some point see the orthodox Sunni belief that the Book is the uncreated word of God.
However, Shi’ites condemn al-Ma'mun as well unpaid to the belief that he was responsible for Ali al-Ridha's poisoning and eventual death in CE. In the ensuing rigorousness struggle, other Abbasids sought to depose Ma'mun in favor asset Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi, Ma'mun's uncle;[56] therefore, getting rid of al-Ridha was the only realistic way of retaining united, absolute, unopposed rule.[57] Al-Ma'mūn ordered that al-Ridha be buried next to description tomb of his own father, Harun al-Rashid, and showed uncommon sorrow in the funeral ritual and stayed for three life at the place. Muhammad al-Jawad, Ali al-Ridha's son and issue, lived unopposed and free during the rest of al-Ma'mūn’s sovereignty (till CE). The Caliph summoned al-Jawad to Baghdad in draw to a close to marry his daughter, Ummul Fadhl. This apparently provoked tough objections by the Abbasids. According to Ya'qubi, al-Ma'mun gave al-Jawad one hundred thousand dirham and said, "Surely I would alike to be a grandfather in the line of the Christian of God and of Ali ibn Abu Talib."[58]